Section 1.0 The Need for Reliability |
1 |
1.1 THE NEED FOR SYSTEM RELIABILITY |
3 |
1.2 CUSTOMER EXPECTATIONS |
5 |
1.3 MARKET COMPETITION |
8 |
1.4 AVAILABILITY AND OPERATIONAL READINESS |
13 |
1.5 LIFE CYCLE COSTS AND LCCA |
19 |
1.6 LIABILITY |
32 |
1.7 MILITARY NEEDS |
36 |
1.8 WARRANTIES |
42 |
Section 2.0 Systems Engineering and Reliability |
53 |
2.1 THE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROCESS |
55 |
2.1.1 Identification of System Needs and Feasibility Analysis |
63 |
2.1.2 System Operational Requirements |
64 |
2.1.3 Functional Analysis and Allocation |
66 |
2.2 CONCEPTS RELATED TO SYSTEM R&M |
72 |
2.2.1 Logistics |
74 |
2.2.2 Supportability |
80 |
2.3 RELIABILITY OVER THE SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE |
81 |
2.4 OVERVIEW OF SOFTWARE RELIABILITY |
87 |
2.4.1 Software vs Hardware Reliability |
91 |
2.5 HUMAN ENGINEERING |
96 |
2.5.1 Elements of a Human Engineering Program |
99 |
2.5.2 Human Reliability Considerations for Systems |
102 |
Section 3.0 Reliability and Maintainability Basics |
105 |
3.1 SYSTEM TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES |
107 |
3.2 RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY DEFINITIONS |
111 |
3.3 THE BATHTUB CURVE |
113 |
3.4 RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY FIGURES-OF-MERIT |
114 |
3.4.1 Operational Parameter Translation |
121 |
3.5 SOFTWARE QUALITY METRICS |
124 |
3.6 HUMAN-MACHINE PERFORMANCE METRICS |
127 |
3.6.1 Human-Machine Reliability, Maintainability and Availability Metrics |
128 |
3.7 RELEVANT STATISTICAL CONCEPTS |
130 |
3.7.1 Probability Distributions |
134 |
3.7.1.1 Binomial Distribution |
139 |
3.7.1.2 Poisson Distribution |
141 |
3.7.1.3 Normal Distribution |
143 |
3.7.1.4 Exponential Distribution |
145 |
3.7.1.5 Gamma Distribution |
147 |
3.7.1.6 Weibull Distribution |
150 |
3.7.2 Statistical Hypothesis Testing |
154 |
3.7.2.1 Hypothesis Testing for Reliability Acceptance |
162 |
3.7.2.2 Hypothesis Testing for Reliability Growth |
165 |
3.7.2.3 Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test |
167 |
3.7.2.4 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Goodness-of-Fit Test |
170 |
3.7.3 Parameter Estimation |
174 |
3.7.4 Confidence Bounds |
179 |
Section 4.0 R&M Requirements and Programs |
185 |
CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS |
|
4.1 PERFORMANCE-BASED REQUIREMENTS |
187 |
4.2 SPECIFICATION OF REQUIREMENTS FOR SYSTEM DESIGN |
191 |
4.2.1 Example R&M Requirements for a Supplier Specification or SOW |
193 |
4.3 QUANTITATIVE RELIABILITY REQUIREMENTS |
199 |
4.4 QUANTITATIVE MAINTAINABILITY REQUIREMENTS |
203 |
4.5 QUANTITATIVE TESTABILITY/DIAGNOSTIC REQUIREMENTS |
204 |
4.6 R&M INFORMATION FOR PROPOSALS |
207 |
4.6.1 Source Selection and R&M Evaluation Criteria |
208 |
PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS |
|
4.7 PROGRAM MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL |
212 |
4.8 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PHASE TERMINOLOGY |
214 |
4.9 RELIABILITY PROGRAM ELEMENTS |
215 |
4.10 R&M ACTIVITY PRIORITIES |
220 |
4.10.1 Human Engineering Relationship to Reliability |
221 |
4.11 NONDEVELOPMENTAL ITEM (NDI) CONSIDERATIONS |
223 |
4.11.1 Issues in COTS Hardware/Software Reliability |
227 |
Section 5.0 Design |
233 |
5.1 PART RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS |
|
5.1.1 Parts Selection, Application and Control |
235 |
5.1.1.1 Special Part Considerations |
242 |
5.1.2 Part Stress Derating |
248 |
5.1.3 Part Failure Modes/Mechanisms |
250 |
5.2 ASSEMBLY RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS |
|
5.2.1 Thermal Management |
255 |
5.2.2 Interconnection Techniques |
257 |
5.2.3 Power Supply Design Checklist |
261 |
5.2.4 Testability Criteria (Assembly Level) |
263 |
5.3 SYSTEM/EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS |
|
5.3.1 The System Design Process |
266 |
5.3.2 Benchmarking |
269 |
5.3.3 System/Equipment Reviews |
272 |
5.3.3.1 Human Engineering Design Reviews |
276 |
5.3.4 Design for Reliability |
278 |
5.3.5 System Fault Tolerance Techniques |
280 |
5.3.5.1 Software Fault Tolerance Techniques |
283 |
5.3.6 Environmental Characterization |
288 |
5.3.7 Critical Item Reliability |
292 |
5.3.8 Testability and Diagnostics |
293 |
5.3.8.1 Testability Criteria (System Level) |
297 |
5.3.9 System Electromagnetic Guidelines |
299 |
5.3.10 Unique Considerations for Dormancy |
301 |
5.3.11 Mechanical Systems |
304 |
5.3.12 Software Reliability Design & Development |
310 |
5.3.12.1 Waterfall Model |
317 |
5.3.12.2 Prototyping and Rapid Prototyping Models |
319 |
5.3.12.3 Spiral and WIN-WIN Models |
322 |
5.3.12.4 Software Reuse |
325 |
5.3.12.5 Software Inspection |
329 |
5.3.12.6 Concurrent Hardware/Software Development |
333 |
5.3.13 Design for Human Factors |
336 |
5.3.13.1 Anthropometric Factors |
338 |
5.3.13.2 Sensory Factors |
340 |
5.3.13.3 Strength and Endurance Factors |
342 |
5.3.13.4 Speed and Accuracy Factors |
344 |
5.3.13.5 Body Movement Factors |
345 |
5.3.13.6 Physiological Factors |
346 |
5.3.13.7 Human Engineering Design Tools & Methods |
353 |
5.3.13.8 Designing for Human Reliability |
356 |
5.3.13.9 Reliable Human Performance |
363 |
5.3.13.10 Factors Affecting Human Performance |
365 |
5.3.13.11 Time and Human Performance Factors |
368 |
5.3.14 Design for Maintainability |
372 |
5.3.14.1 System Maintainability Concepts |
374 |
5.3.14.2 System Maintainability Considerations |
376 |
5.3.14.3 System Interfaces and Connections |
382 |
Section 6.0 Analysis |
385 |
6.1 TYPES OF RELIABILITY ANALYSES |
387 |
6.2 RELIABILITY MODELING |
|
6.2.1 Hardware Reliability Modeling |
389 |
6.2.2 Software Reliability Modeling |
396 |
6.2.2.1 Time Domain Models |
400 |
6.2.2.2 Fault Seeding Model |
407 |
6.2.2.3 Input Domain Models |
409 |
6.2.3 Human Reliability Modeling |
411 |
6.3 ALLOCATION OF RELIABILITY REQUIREMENTS |
414 |
6.3.1 Allocation of Hardware Reliability Requirements |
415 |
6.3.2 Allocation of Software Reliability Requirements |
421 |
6.3.2.1 Allocation by Sequential Execution |
424 |
6.3.2.2 Allocation by Concurrent Execution |
425 |
6.3.2.3 Allocation by Operational Profile |
426 |
6.3.2.4 Allocation by Complexity Factors |
429 |
6.3.2.5 Allocation by Operational Criticality |
431 |
6.3.3 Allocation of Human Reliability Requirements |
433 |
6.4 RELIABILITY PREDICTION |
|
6.4.1 Hardware Reliability Prediction |
437 |
6.4.1.1 Reliability Physics |
441 |
6.4.1.2 Reliability of Surface Mount Technology (SMT) |
444 |
6.4.1.3 Parts Count Reliability Prediction |
449 |
6.4.1.4 Reliability Adjustment Factors |
461 |
6.4.1.5 Reliability Prediction of Dormant Items |
463 |
6.4.1.6 Reliability Prediction of Mechanical Components |
464 |
6.4.1.7 Reliability Prediction Checklist |
473 |
6.4.2 Software Reliability Prediction/Estimation Overview |
474 |
6.4.2.1 Software Reliability Prediction |
480 |
6.4.2.2 Software Fault Estimation Using Tagging |
482 |
6.4.2.3 Prequential Likelihood Ratio |
484 |
6.4.2.4 Assessing Software Reliability Model Performance |
486 |
6.4.3 Predicting Human Reliability |
491 |
6.5 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS |
|
6.5.1 Overview of Data Collection and Analysis |
498 |
6.5.2 Types and Sources of Data |
513 |
6.5.3 Use of Existing Reliability Data |
516 |
6.5.4 Human Reliability Data Sources |
517 |
6.5.5 Data Analysis Techniques |
520 |
6.5.5.1 Weibull Analysis |
525 |
6.5.5.2 Regression Analysis |
532 |
6.5.5.3 Analysis of Variance |
538 |
6.6 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES |
542 |
6.6.1 Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) |
543 |
6.6.2 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) |
554 |
6.6.3 Worst Case Analysis |
567 |
6.6.4 Sneak Analysis |
573 |
6.6.4.1 Sneak Circuit Analysis |
577 |
6.6.4.2 Software Sneak Analysis |
579 |
6.6.5 Durability Analysis |
584 |
6.6.6 Finite Element Analysis |
588 |
6.6.7 Safety Analysis |
|
6.6.7.1 Overview of Safety Analysis |
590 |
6.6.7.2 Software Safety Analysis |
594 |
6.6.8 Thermal Analysis |
601 |
6.6.9 Electromagnetic Analysis |
605 |
6.6.10 Human Factors Analysis |
608 |
6.6.11 Maintainability/Testability Analysis |
|
6.6.11.1 Maintainability Analysis |
609 |
6.6.11.2 Testability Analysis |
610 |
6.6.11.3 Maintainability/Testability Analysis Checklist |
611 |
6.6.12 Reliability-Centered Maintenance |
612 |
Section 7.0 Testing |
621 |
7.1 SYSTEM TEST REQUIREMENTS |
623 |
7.2 RELIABILITY TESTING |
627 |
7.2.1 Reliability Test Strategies |
628 |
7.2.2 Software Reliability Test Strategies |
632 |
7.3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (DOE) |
636 |
7.4 ACCELERATED AND HIGHLY ACCELERATED TESTING |
646 |
7.4.1 Acceleration Factors Used in Life Models |
649 |
7.4.2 Accelerated Life Testing |
656 |
7.4.3 Highly Accelerated Testing |
665 |
7.4.3.1 Step-Stress Testing |
669 |
7.4.3.2 Highly Accelerated Life Test (HALT) |
671 |
7.5 RELIABILITY GROWTH AND RELIABILITY DEMO/QUAL TESTING |
673 |
7.5.1 Reliability Growth Testing |
675 |
7.5.1.1 Software Reliability Growth Testing |
680 |
7.5.2 Reliability Demonstration/Qualification Testing |
684 |
7.6 RELIABILITY SCREENING |
699 |
7.6.1 Environmental Stress Screening (ESS) |
704 |
7.7 ELECTROMAGNETIC TESTING |
708 |
7.8 SOFTWARE RELIABILITY TESTING |
710 |
7.8.1 Software Test Coverage Metrics |
713 |
7.8.2 Software Statistical Usage Testing |
717 |
7.8.3 Operational Profile Testing |
725 |
7.8.4 Markov Testing |
731 |
7.9 HUMAN FACTORS TEST AND EVALUATION |
736 |
7.9.1 Human Engineering Test and Evaluation Activities |
738 |
7.9.2 Testing for Human Reliability |
740 |
7.10 MAINTAINABILITY/TESTABILITY TEST STRATEGIES |
744 |
7.10.1 Maintainability/Testability Demonstration Testing |
752 |
7.11 FAILURE REPORTING, ANALYSIS AND CORRECTIVE ACTION SYSTEM |
756 |
7.11.1 Root Cause Failure Analysis |
766 |
Section 8.0 Production and Beyond |
773 |
8.1 STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL AND SIX-SIGMA |
775 |
8.2 CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT |
788 |
8.3 LIFETIME EXTENSION ASSESSMENT |
797 |
APPENDIX A Example Hardware Reliability Design Guidelines |
804 |
APPENDIX B R&M Standardization Documents |
814 |
APPENDIX C Reliability and Maintainability Education Sources |
830 |
APPENDIX D Acronyms |
834 |